Waqas Khan, a Pakistani artist, noticed a divide between the art world and the local community when he observed that people walked past the Manchester Art Gallery without ever considering to look inside. He came up with the idea of an installation in neon lights that read ‘khushamdeed’ in a street facing window of the gallery. Recognized by many in the local community, it drew in people with curiosity because they had been welcomed. Language creates a world that has the power to control access, connecting or dividing with its form and use. Two literary excerpts, one from a short story ‘Mericans’ from Woman Hollering Creek and other stories by Sandra Cisneros (1991) and the second from the novel Trainspotting by Irvine Welsh (1996), show a glimpse of these worlds.
In ‘Mericans’ (1991), Cisneros use of lexical choice, graphology and the exclusion of languages reflect the idea of barriers. Spanish and English set up the linguistic context, the first not being spoken by the narrator and the latter not by the grandmother. In this linguistic no man’s land, when the narrator quotes her relatives, the reader sees the text in its translated English version and italicized. This exclusion of a language reflects the narrator’s distance and disconnect. Her defiant ‘What?’ in responding to her Spanish speaking grandmother further reflects this idea of the us versus them in generational and geographical distances and attitudes (Cisneros 1991:19). The grandmother is always the ‘awful grandmother’ a description used every single one of the nine times she is mentioned in the story while the grandmother herself refers to the birth of her grandchildren ‘in that barbaric country with its barbarian ways’ (Cisneros 1991:19). American or Mexican, English or Spanish, these barriers reflect a sense of separateness and exclusion both of and by the narrator.
Despite barely understanding Spanish herself, Micaela looks down on others speaking it, commenting it is ‘too big for her mouth’ in regards to a woman visiting the site. This woman speaks Spanish in an attempt to connect with one of Micaela’s brothers, assuming the language belongs to him and expressing surprise at his English. The sense of something foreign and separate pervades the text as this is the only instance when Spanish text is employed and no translation offered. Through the choices made in the text of one language over another, the readers get a sense of the struggle of ownership as well as the barriers drawn through language. In the end, it is the English speaking voice that asserts its identity and picks a side, with one of the brothers declaring ‘[…] we’re Mericans’ (Cisneros 1991:20).
In Trainspotting (Welsh 1996), the idea of access through language is first on a very literal level. Written in Scottish English, the language is first and foremost geared towards the speakers of or to those familiar with the language. Centered around a group of heroin addicts in Edinburgh, the original publication did not include a glossary and so in addition, idiomatic language and local slang would likely have only been accessible to its speakers. In just reading the first ten pages of the book, one can imagine how for a reader unfamiliar with the Scottish tone and its rhythms, getting through the complete novel would have proven to be a challenge. It was only later with the release of the film version of Trainspotting that a version of the book with a glossary was printed. This edition (Welsh 1996) complemented the subtitled version of the film, both of which would then be more accessible to a wider audience (Jenkins 1996).
However, taken in smaller doses, the excerpt discussed in Unit 6 of this module, is digestible on its own and suggests at the potential of its accessibility. Most of the content words dealing with the narrator’s experience with withdrawal are comprehensible. Other than the idiomatic expression ‘auld man shot the craw’, it is possible to follow the narrative without having to look anything up. One can only attribute this to the author’s balance between what is Standard English and Scottish English which maintains the accessibility of the text. It should be noted however, that it is also the reader’s decision to take up the challenge of reading such a text and choosing to access a world presented in an unfamiliar language.
One way the text lends itself to be more accessible is through its use of graphic language. Even though the phonology may take a moment to get a handle on, the description of how the narrator feels his head is going to explode paints a vivid image, one that has the potential of ‘broadening […] the scope of the local language’ (Carter & McRae 2017:493) and overcoming the issue of inaccessibility. Now there is a visual version of an addict’s world that transcends any language barriers even though the Scottish English in the rest of the text may be a reach.
Using the two languages has an added advantage of creating different points of view and redirecting attention. When dealing with the parents’ insistence on his eating meat, the narrator’s inner dialogue provides a sarcastic comment on their lack of awareness with ‘Now there is apparently a causal link between heroin addiction and vegetarianism’. The sudden change in the form of English used serves to catch the reader’s attention in its contrast, sounding jarring and mocking in its tone. That tone in turn paints a very jaded view and a rejection of anyone attempting to take an authoritative stance with regards to drug use, a sentiment also present earlier in reference to the father’s attempt to seek help from ‘establishments and social-work offices’. Implementing varied englishes in this way creates a textual image of social barriers and differences.
The texts here are distinctive in the worlds they create in terms of theme, setting and author’s voice. Their similarity lies in their play with English to represent an internal struggle for the narrator, shaping, choosing and even rejecting identities.
Reference List:
Carter, R. & McRae, J. (2017) The Routledge history of literature in English : Britain and Ireland. London: Routledge. Available from: https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/nottingham/detail.action?docID=4917655.
Cisneros, S. (1991) ‘Mericans’ in Woman Hollering Creek and other stories. New York: Random House.
Jenkins, M. (1996) The Independent ‘Trainspotting’ made easy-for Americans Available from: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/trainspotting-made-easy-for-americans-1349197.html
Khan, W. (2018) Interview for Lahore Literary Festival. New York: Asia Society.
Welsh, I. (1996) Trainspotting New York: W.W. Norton and Company.
Mariam Sultan 